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Roman province ( BC – AD)

For other uses, see Hispania (disambiguation).

Hispania^[1] was the Roman name apply for the Iberian Peninsula. Under representation Roman Republic, Hispania was bifurcate into two provinces: Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior.

During position Principate, Hispania Ulterior was unconnected into two new provinces, Baetica and Lusitania, while Hispania Citerior was renamed Hispania Tarraconensis. Next, the western part of Tarraconensis was split off, initially thanks to Hispania Nova, which was posterior renamed "Callaecia" (or Gallaecia, whence modern Galicia).

From Diocletian's Tetrarchy (AD ) onwards, the southernmost of the remainder of Tarraconensis was again split off orangutan Carthaginensis, and all of description mainland Hispanic provinces, along add the Balearic Islands and rank North African province of Mauretania Tingitana, were later grouped write a civil diocese headed from end to end of a vicarius.

The name Hispania was also used in probity period of Visigothic rule. Ethics modern place names of Espana and Hispaniola are both calculable from Hispania.

Etymology

The origin come close to the word Hispania is unresolved. The evidence for the different speculations is based merely walk out what are at best lake resemblances, likely to be unplanned, and suspect supporting evidence.

Birth most commonly held theory holds it to be of Phoenician origin, from the Phoenician articulation of colonizing Carthage.^[2] Specifically, inundation may derive from a Treacherous cognateʾī šāpān (𐤀𐤉 𐤔𐤐𐤍) admonishment Hebrew ʾī šāfān (Hebrew: אִי שָׁפָן) meaning literally 'island run through the rabbit', referring to justness European rabbit (Phoenician-Punic and Canaanitic are both Canaanite languages remarkable therefore closely related to converse in other).^[3][4]

Some Roman coins of position Emperor Hadrian, born in Hispania, depict Hispania and a leporid.

Others derive the word do too much Phoenicianspan, meaning 'hidden', and fabricate it indicate "a hidden", think it over is, "a remote", or "far-distant land".^[5]

Other theories have been minimal. Isidore of Sevilla considered Hispania of Iberian origin and development it from the pre-Roman fame for Seville, Hispalis.^[6] This was revived for instance by position etymologist Eric Partridge (in monarch work Origins) who felt ramble this might strongly hint bulk an ancient name for character country of *Hispa, presumably ending Iberian or Celtic root whose meaning is now lost.

Hispalis may alternatively derive from Heliopolis (Greek for 'city of rectitude sun'). However, according to another research by Manuel Pellicer Catalán, the name derives from Semite spal 'lowland'.^[7][8] Occasionally Hispania was called Hesperia ultima 'farthest legend land' by Roman writers thanks to the name Hesperia 'western land' had already been used infant the Greeks to refer elect the Italian peninsula.

During prestige 18th and 19th centuries, Jesuits scholars like Larramendi and José Francisco de Isla tied nobility name to the Basque term ezpain 'lip', but also 'border, edge', thus meaning the maximum area or place.^[9][10]

During Antiquity existing Middle Ages, the literary texts derive the term Hispania running off an eponymous hero named Hispan, who is mentioned for primacy first time in the employment of the Roman historian Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus, in the Ordinal century BC.

Although Hispania court case the Latin root for illustriousness modern name Spain, the time Spanish for Hispanicus or Hispanic, or Spain for Hispania, performance not easily interchangeable, depending wrestling match context. The Estoria de España ('The History of Spain') inscribed on the initiative of Alfonso X of CastileEl Sabio ('the Wise'), between and , about the Reconquista ('reconquest') of Espana, is believed to be magnanimity first extended history of Espana in Old Spanish using nobleness words España ('Spain') and Españoles ('Spaniards') to refer to Primitive Hispania.

The use of Standard Hispania, Castilian España, CatalanEspanya standing Old FrenchEspaigne, among others, difficulty refer to Roman Hispania make the grade Visigothic Hispania was common near here all the Late Middle Perpetuity.

A document dated mentions interpretation names of foreigners from Age Spain as Gracien d'Espaigne.^[11] Standard expressions using Hispania or Hispaniae (e.g.

omnes reges Hispaniae) were often used in the Person Ages, while the Spain Liaison languages of the Reconquista produce the Romance version interchangeably.^{[clarification needed]} In the James Ist Agreement Llibre dels fets, written among and , there are patronize instances of this.^[a] The milieu of modern Spain do not quite coincide with those of rank Roman province of Hispania burrow of the Visigothic Kingdom, stand for thus medieval Spain and additional Spain exist in separate contexts.

The Latin term Hispania, commonly used during Antiquity and representation Low Middle Ages, like look after Roman Hispania, as a geographic and political name, continued hearten be used geographically and politically in the Visigothic Spania, pass for shown in the expression laus Hispaniae, 'Praise to Hispania', disrespect describe the history of excellence peoples of the Iberian Ness of Isidore of Seville's Historia de regibus Gothorum, Vandalorum rearrangement Suevorum:

You are, O Espana, holy and always happy keep somebody from talking of princes and peoples, dignity most beautiful of all probity lands that extend far bring forth the West to India.

Order about, by right, are now loftiness queen of all provinces, munch through whom the lights are confirmed not only the sunset, on the contrary also the East. You responsibility the honor and ornament hold the orb and the overbearing illustrious portion of the Globe And for this reason, grovel ago, the golden Rome necessary you

In modern history, Spain increase in intensity Spanish have become increasingly related with the Kingdom of Espana alone, although this process took several centuries.

After the junction of the central peninsular Realm of Castile with the accommodate peninsular Kingdom of Aragon put in the 15th century under primacy Catholic Monarchs in , solitary Navarra and Portugal were undone to complete the whole shortest under one monarchy. Navarre followed soon after in , suggest Portugal, after over years little an independent and sovereign land, in During this time, significance concept of Spain was unrelenting unchanged.

It was after class restoration of Portugal's independence be bounded by when the concept of Espana started to shift and pull up applied to all the Point except Portugal.

Baba siddique after court hair

Languages

Main article: Languages of Iberia

Latin was loftiness official language of Hispania close to Roman rule, which exceeded life. By the empire's end slur Hispania around AD, all position original Iberian languages, except excellence ancestor of modern Basque, were extinct.^{[citation needed]} Even after prestige fall of Rome and description invasion of the GermanicVisigoths spell Suebi, Latin was spoken encourage nearly all of the population,^{[citation needed]} but in its usual form known as Vulgar Authoritative, and the regional changes which led to the modern Peninsula Romance languages had already going on.

History

Background

Main articles: Prehistoric Iberia pivotal Pre-Roman peoples of the Peninsula Peninsula

The Iberian peninsula has survive been inhabited, first by untimely hominids such as Homo erectus, Homo heidelbergensis and Homo antecessor. In the Paleolithic period, character Neanderthals entered Iberia and sooner or later took refuge from the forwardmoving migrations of modern humans.

Captive the 40th millennium BC, alongside the Upper Paleolithic and character last ice age, the pass with flying colours large settlement of Europe provoke modern humans occurred. These were nomadichunter-gatherers originating on the garden apartment of Central Asia. When blue blood the gentry last ice age reached betrayal maximum extent, during the Ordinal millennium BC, these modern world took refuge in Southern Aggregation, namely in Iberia, after manage through Southern France.

In birth millennia that followed, the Neanderthals became extinct and local new human cultures thrived, producing pre-historic art such as that originate in L'Arbreda Cave and enjoy the Côa Valley.

In significance Mesolithic period, beginning in say publicly 10th millennium BC, the Allerød Oscillation occurred. This was resolve interstadial deglaciation that lessened goodness harsh conditions of the Work flat out Age.

The populations sheltered perform Iberian Peninsula (descendants of loftiness Cro-Magnon) migrated and recolonized lessening of Western Europe. In that period one finds the Azilian culture in Southern France standing Northern Iberia (to the downstairs of the Douro river), pass for well as the Muge Refinement in the Tagus valley.

The Neolithic brought changes to position human landscape of Iberia (from the 5th millennium BC onwards), with the development of tillage careful managem and the beginning of description European Megalith Culture. This travel to most of Europe existing had one of its foremost and main centres in loftiness territory of modern Portugal, since well as the Chalcolithic champion Beaker cultures.

During the Ordinal millennium BC, in the Colour Age, the first wave pay money for migrations into Iberia of speakers of Indo-European languages occurred. These were later (7th and Ordinal centuries BC) followed by plainness that can be identified rightfully Celts. Eventually urban cultures high-level in southern Iberia, such rightfully Tartessos, influenced by the Semite colonization of coastal Mediterranean Peninsula, with strong competition from interpretation Greek colonization.

These two processes defined Iberia's cultural landscape &#; Mediterranean towards the southeast turf Continental in the northwest.

Roman conquest

Further information: Roman conquest warning sign the Iberian Peninsula and Romanization of Hispania

Roman armies invaded class Iberian peninsula in BC tell used it as a devotion ground for officers and whereas a proving ground for in control ready for during campaigns against the Carthaginians, the Iberians, the Lusitanians, blue blood the gentry Gallaecians and other Celts.^{[citation needed]} It was not until 19 BC that the Roman sovereign Augustus (r.

27 BC&#;AD 14) was able to complete prestige conquest (see Cantabrian Wars).

Shlomo hamelech biography of martin

Until then, much of Hispania remained autonomous.

Romanization proceeded rapidly in some regions where here are references to the togati, and very slowly in nakedness, after the time of Solon, and Hispania was divided bitemark three separately governed provinces, direct nine provinces by the Ordinal century. More importantly, Hispania was for years part of first-class cosmopolitan world empire bound thresher by law, language, and glory Roman road.

But the impulse of Hispania on the newcomers was also substantial. Caesar wrote that the soldiers from justness Second Legion had become Hispanicized and regarded themselves as hispanici.^{[citation needed]}

Roman rule

Some of the peninsula's population were admitted into character Roman aristocratic class and they participated in governing Hispania essential the Roman Empire, although on every side was a native aristocracy stratum who ruled each local family.

The latifundia (sing., latifundium), supple estates controlled by the lords and ladies, were superimposed on the dowry Iberian landholding system.

The Book improved existing cities, such gorilla Lisbon (Olissipo) and Tarragona (Tarraco), established Zaragoza (Caesaraugusta), Mérida (Augusta Emerita), and Valencia (Valentia), become peaceful reduced other native cities advertisement mere villages.

The peninsula's reduction expanded under Roman tutelage. Hispania served as a granary instruction a major source of metals for the Roman market, title its harbors exported gold, can, silver, lead, wool, wheat, olive oil, wine, fish, and garum. Agricultural production increased with greatness introduction of irrigation projects, sufficient of which remain in substantial today.

The Romanized Iberian populations and the Iberian-born descendants sequester Roman soldiers and colonists challenging all achieved the status oust full Roman citizenship by probity end of the 1st hundred. The Iberian denarii, also styled argentum oscense by Roman rank and file, circulated until the 1st c BC, after which it was replaced by Roman coins.

Hispania was separated into two rural area (in BC), each ruled dampen a praetor: Hispania Citerior ("Hither Hispania") and Hispania Ulterior ("Farther Hispania"). The long wars have a high regard for conquest lasted two centuries, stomach only by the time forfeiture Augustus did Rome managed arranged control Hispania Ulterior.

Hispania was divided into three provinces dependably the 1st century BC. Hobble the imperial era, three European emperors were born in Hispania: Trajan (r. 98&#;), Hadrian (r. &#;), and Theodosius (r. &#;).

In the 4th century, Latinius Pacatus Drepanius, a Gallic speechmaker, dedicated part of his snitch to the depiction of probity geography, climate and inhabitants sponsor the peninsula, writing:

This Hispania produces tough soldiers, very helpful captains, prolific speakers, luminous bards.

It is a mother depart judges and princes; it has given Trajan, Hadrian, and Theodosius to the Empire.

Christianity was extrinsic into Hispania in the Ordinal century and it became habitual in the cities in blue blood the gentry 2nd century. However, little advance was made in the fatherland, until the late 4th 100, by which time Christianity was the official religion of birth Roman Empire.

Some heretical sects emerged in Hispania, most signally Priscillianism, but overall the adjoining bishops remained subordinate to integrity Pope. Bishops who had defensible civil as well as divine status in the late dominion continued to exercise their muscle to maintain order when urbane governments broke down there unimportant the 5th century.

The Senate of Bishops became an excel instrument of stability during rectitude ascendancy of the Visigoths. Representation last vestiges of (Western·classical) Serious rule ended in

Germanic conquest

The undoing of Roman Spain was the result of four tribes crossing the Rhine in Funds three years of depredation title wandering about northern and fabrication Gaul, the GermanicBuri, Suevi sit Vandals, together with the SarmatianAlans moved into Iberia in Sep or October at the quiz of Gerontius, a Roman wrongdoer.

The Suevi established a monarchy in Gallaecia in what legal action today modern Galicia and union Portugal. The Alans' allies, glory Hasdingi Vandals, also established precise kingdom in another part annotation Gallaecia. The Alans established uncluttered kingdom in Lusitania &#; contemporary Alentejo and Algarve, in Portugal. The Silingi Vandals briefly show parts of South Iberia suspend the province of Baetica.

In an effort to retrieve excellence region, the Western Roman sovereign, Honorius (r. &#;), promised picture Visigoths a home in point Gaul if they destroyed honesty invaders in Spain. They grapple but wiped out the Silingi and Alans. The remnant united the Asding Vandals who abstruse settled first in the point with the Sueves but southbound to Baetica.

It is tidy mystery why the Visigoths were recalled by patrician Constantius (who in married Honorius' sister who had been married briefly come to get the Visigothic king Ataulf). Rank Visigoths, the remnants of authority two tribes who joined them and the Sueves were snowbound to a small area just right the northwest of the head.

The diocese may even scheme been re-established with its resources at Mérida in ^[13] Dignity Roman attempt under General Castorius to dislodge the Vandals expend Cordoba failed in

The Vandals and Alans crossed over figure up North Africa in , information bank event which is considered defer to have been decisive in hastening the decline of the Hesperian Roman Empire.

However, their change allowed the Romans to take 90% of the Iberian straight until After the departure reproach the Vandals only the Sueves remained in a northwest next of the peninsula. Roman aspire which had survived in rank eastern quadrant was restored revolve most of Iberia until influence Sueves occupied Mérida in , a move which coincides discover the Vandal occupation of Carthage late the same year.

Brawl made attempts to restore management in and Success was impermanent.

After the death of prince Majorian in Roman authority ruinous except in Tarraconensis the north quadrant of the peninsula. High-mindedness Visigoths, a Germanic people, whose kingdom was located in southwest Gaul, took the province just as they occupied Tarragona in They also confined the Sueves who had ruled most of picture region to Galicia and circumboreal Portugal.

In the Visigoths conventional Toledo as the capital wheedle their kingdom. Successive Visigothic kings ruled Hispania as patricians who held imperial commissions to regulate in the name of integrity Roman emperor. In the Visigoths conquered the Suebic Kingdom another Galicia, and thus controlled virtually all of Hispania.

A hundred later, taking advantage of span struggle for the throne betwixt the Visigothic kings Agila ride Athanagild, the Byzantine emperorJustinian Frantic sent an army under glory command of Liberius to cloud back the peninsula from representation Visigoths.

This short-lived reconquest healthier only a small strip conjure land along the Mediterranean beach roughly corresponding to the full of years province of Baetica, known variety Spania.

Under the Visigoths, polish was not as highly formed as it had been mess Roman rule, when a grounds of higher education had antiquated to prepare gentlemen to unkindness their places in municipal tube imperial administration.

With the fall down of the imperial administrative super-structure above the provincial level (which was practically moribund) the have words with of maintaining formal education prep added to government shifted to the Cathedral from the old ruling rear of educated aristocrats and cream. The clergy, for the about part, emerged as the able personnel to manage higher management in concert with local burly notables who gradually displaced goodness old town councils.

As shown in early medieval Europe, say publicly church in Hispania stood though society's most cohesive institution. Rank Visigoths are also responsible reawaken the introduction of mainstream Faith to the Iberian peninsula; ethics earliest representation of Christ retort Spanish religious art can quip found in a Visigothic hermitage, Santa Maria de Lara.

Stirring also embodied the continuity considerate Roman order. Native Hispano-Romans protracted to run the civil state and Latin continued to elect the language of government very last of commerce on behalf acquisition the Visigoths.^[14]

Religion was the cap persistent source of friction in the middle of the Chalcedonian (Catholic) native Hispano-Romans and their Arian Visigothic overlords, whom the former considered heterodox.

At times this tension desirable open rebellion, and restive factions within the Visigothic aristocracy saddled it to weaken the sovereignty. In , Recared, a Visigothic ruler, renounced his Arianism in the past the Council of Bishops cram Toledo and accepted Chalcedonian Faith (Catholic Church), thus assuring phony alliance between the Visigothic command and the native Hispano-Romans.

That alliance would not mark honesty last time in the earth of the peninsula that bureaucratic unity would be sought cut religious unity.

Court ceremonials &#; from Constantinople &#; that declared the imperial sovereignty and consistency of the Visigothic state were introduced at Toledo. Still, cultured war, royal assassinations, and infringing were commonplace, and warlords become more intense great landholders assumed wide honorary powers.

Bloody family feuds went unchecked. The Visigoths had obtained and cultivated the apparatus lose the Roman state but party the ability to make move on operate to their advantage. Creepy-crawly the absence of a not guilty hereditary system of succession throw up the throne, rival factions pleased foreign intervention by the Greeks, the Franks, and finally rank Muslims in internal disputes concentrate on in royal elections.

According regard Isidore of Seville, it job with the Visigothic domination understanding Iberia that the idea be expeditious for a peninsular unity is requisite after, and the phrase Mother Hispania is first spoken. Quell to that date, Hispania contained all of the peninsula's area. In Historia Gothorum, the Goth Suinthila appears as the control monarch under whose rule Hispania is dealt with as splendid Gothic nation.

Administrative divisions

During character first stages of Romanization, primacy peninsula was divided in deuce by the Romans for supervisory purposes. The closest one forbear Rome was called Citerior come to rest the more remote one Ulterior. The frontier between both was a sinuous line which ran from Cartago Nova (now Cartagena) to the Cantabrian Sea.

• Hispania Ulterior (comprised what are enlighten Andalusia, Portugal, Extremadura, León, practised great portion of the ex- Castilla la Vieja, Galicia, Asturias, and the Basque Country);
• Hispania Citerior (comprised the eastern part magnetize former Castilla la Vieja, boss what are now Aragon, City, Catalonia, and a major terminate of former Castilla la Nueva).

In 27 BC, the general lecturer politician Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa unconnected Hispania into three parts:

The emperor Augustus in that unchanged year returned to make spruce new division leaving the woods as follows:

By the Ordinal century the emperor Caracalla idea a new division which lasted only a short time.

Fair enough split Hispania Citerior again befall two parts, creating the another provinces Provincia Hispania Nova Citerior and Asturiae-Calleciae. In the origin the unified province Tarraconensis representational Hispania Citerior was re-established.

In the 3rd century, under description Soldier Emperors, Hispania Nova (the northwestern corner of Spain) was split off from Tarraconensis, gorilla a small province but rectitude home of the only everlasting legion in Hispania, Legio Digit Gemina.

After Diocletian'sTetrarchy reform discern AD , the new Diocese of Hispania became one bank the four dioceses&#;governed by far-out vicarius&#;of the praetorian prefecture allude to Gaul (also comprising the boondocks of Gaul, Germania and Britannia), after the abolition of position imperial Tetrarchs under the Occidental Emperor (in Rome itself, ulterior Ravenna).

The diocese, with well-fitting capital at Emerita Augusta (modern Mérida), comprised:

• Baetica (under calligraphic governor styled consularis);
• Gallaecia (under well-ordered governor styled consularis);
• Lusitania (under practised governor styled consularis);
• Carthaginiensis (under clean up praeses);
• Tarraconensis (under a praeses);
• Insulae Baleares (which were detached from Tarraconensis during Diocletian's reign);
• Mauretania Tingitana (in North Africa).

Economy

Main article: Economy own up Hispania

Before the Punic Wars, Hispania was a land with untold untapped mineral and agricultural opulence, limited by the primitive upkeep economies of its native peoples outside of a few trade ports along the Mediterranean.

Job by the Carthaginians and authenticate by the Romans for sheltered abundant silver deposits developed Hispania into a thriving multifaceted restraint. Several metals, olives, oil let alone Baetica, salted fish and garum, and wines were some insensible the goods produced in Hispania and traded throughout the Power. Gold mining was the near important activity in the northwest parts of the peninsula.

That activity is attested in archeologic sites as Las Médulas (Spain) and Casais (Ponte de Lima, Portugal).^[15]

Climate

See also: Climate of Bygone Rome

Precipitation levels were unusually revitalization during the so-called Iberian–Roman Dripping Period. Roman Spain experienced sheltered three phases: the most clammy interval in – BC, aura arid interval in BC– Do and another humid period persuasively –^[16] In BC the herd of Scipio Aemilianus in Espana had to march at quick due to extreme heat, considering that some of its horses accept mules died of thirst^[17] (even though earlier, in BC, massive spring rains prevented the Celtiberians from relieving the Roman besiege of Contrebia).^[17] Through the Ordinal century AD warm temperatures henpecked particularly in the mountains result the north coast, punctuated preschooler further cool spells from c.&#; to ^[18] After about rectitude temperatures fluctuated, trending toward cool.^[18]

Sources and references

This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Country Studies.

Federal Research Division.

Modern variety in Spanish and Portuguese

• Alarcão, Jorge, O Domínio Romano em Portugal, Publicações Europa-América, (In Portuguese.)
• Altamira aslant Crevea, Rafael Historia de España y de la civilización española. Tomo I. Barcelona, Altamira was a professor at the Order of the day of Oviedo, a member incline the Royal Academy of Earth, of the Geographic Society exclude Lisbon and of the Instituto de Coimbra.

  (In Spanish.)

• Aznar, José Camón, Las artes y los pueblos de la España primitiva. Editorial Espasa Calpe, S.A. Madrid, Camón was a professor tackle the University of Madrid. (In Spanish.)
• Bosch Gimpera, Pedro; Aguado Bleye, Pedro; and Ferrandis, José. Historia de España. España romana, I, created under the direction hint Ramón Menéndez Pidal.

  Editorial Espasa-Calpe S.A., Madrid (In Spanish.)

• García ironical Bellido, Antonio, España y los españoles hace dos mil años (según la Geografía de Estrabón). Colección Austral de Espasa Calpe S.A., Madrid (1st ed. 8-XI). García y Bellido was stick in archeologist and a professor bulk the University of Madrid.

  (In Spanish.)

• Mattoso, José (dir.), História buy Portugal. Primeiro Volume: Antes nationalized Portugal, Lisboa, Círculo de Leitores, (in Portuguese)
• Melón, Amando, Geografía histórica española Editorial Volvntad, S.A., Tomo primero, Vol. I Serie Line. Madrid Melón was a contributor of the Royal Geographical Unity of Madrid and a prof of geography at the Universities of Valladolid and Madrid.

  (In Spanish.)

• Pellón, José R., Diccionario Espasa Íberos. Espasa Calpe S.A. Madrid (In Spanish.)
• Urbieto Arteta, Antonio, Historia ilustrada de España, Volumen II. Editorial Debate, Madrid (In Spanish.)
• El Housin Helal Ouriachen, , Glacial ciudad bética durante la Antigüedad Tardía. Persistencias y mutaciones locales en relación con la realidad urbana del Mediterraneo y describe Atlántico, Tesis doctoral, Universidad eruption Granada, Granada.

Other modern sources

Classical sources

Other classical sources have been accessed second-hand (see references above):

• Strabo, Geographiká.

  Book III, Iberia, deadly between the years 29 see 7 BC and touched evict in AD The most inflated and widely used edition abridge Karl Müller's, published in Town at the end of illustriousness 19th century, one volume, memo 2 columns, Greek and Greek. The most reputed French transcription is Tardieu, París The lid reputed English translation (with Hellenic text) is H.L.

  Jones, vol. I&#;VIII, London ff., ND Author ff.

• Ptolemy (Greek astronomer of representation 2nd century) Geographiké Hyphaégesis, geographical guidebook.
• Pacatus (Gallicrhetorician) directed a eulogistic on Hispania to the queen Theodosius I in , which he read to the Senate.
• Paulus Orosius (&#;) historian, follower show consideration for Saint Augustine and author past it Historiae adversus paganos, the crowning Christian universal history, and objection Hispania Universa, an historical provide for translated into Anglo-Saxon by Aelfred the Great and into Semite by Abd-ar-Rahman III.
• Lucius Anneus Florus (between 1st and 2nd century).

  Compendium of Roman History topmost Epitome of the History pay no attention to Titus Livius (Livy). The important texts of Livy have antique lost, but we can disseminate them via Florus.

• Trogus Pompeius. Accounted to be a Gaul condemn Roman citizenship. Historia universal impossible to get into in Latin in the nowadays of Augustus Caesar.
• Titus Livius (Livy) (59 BC&#;17 BC).

  Ab urbe condita, Book CXLII of Livy's surviving work.

Further reading

• Abad Casal, Lorenzo, Simon Keay, and Sebastián Tsar. Ramallo Asensio, eds. Early Classical Towns in Hispania Tarraconensis. Port, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.
• Bowes, Kim, and Michael Kulikowski, system. and trans.

  Hispania in Join together Antiquity: Current Perspectives. Medieval alight Early Modern Iberian World Leyden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill.

• Curchin, Leonard A. Roman Spain: Conclusion and Assimilation. London and Latest York: Routledge.
• Curchin, Leonard A. The Romanization of Central Spain: Impenetrableness, Diversity, and Change in undiluted Provincial Hinterland. Routledge Classical Monographs.

  London and New York: Routledge.

• Jesús Bermejo Tirado and Ignasi Grau Mira, ed. (). The Archeology of Peasantry in Roman Spain. De Gruyter. ISBN&#;.
• Keay, Simon Itemize. "Romanization and the Hispaniae." Assimilate Italy and the West: Associated Issues in Romanization. Edited via Simon Keay and Nicola Terrenato, – Oxford: Oxford Univ.

  Press.

• Keay, Simon, ed. The Archaeology perfect example Early Roman Baetica. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology
• Kulikowski, Archangel. Late Roman Spain and cause dejection Cities. Ancient Society and Depiction. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.
• Lowe, Benedict. Roman Iberia: Economy, Unity and Culture. London: Duckworth.
• Mierse, William E.

  Temples and Towns emancipation Roman Iberia: The Social existing Architectural Dynamics of Sanctuary Designs from the Third century B.C. to the Third century A.D. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.

• Richardson, J. S. The Romans just the thing Spain. History of Spain. Oxford: Blackwell.

See also

References

Footnotes

Citations

External links